1권_명제 4 삼각형 SSS합동

Proposition 4.

If two triangles have two sides equal to two sides respectively, and have the angles contained by the equal straight lines equal, then they also have the base equal to the base, the triangle equals the triangle, and the remaining angles equal the remaining angles respectively, namely those opposite the equal sides.

두 삼각형에서 두변과 사이에 낀 각이 서로 같다면 나머지 변과 각들은 서로 같다.

너무 당연해서 어떻게 증명해야 할까 고민된다. 먼저 ‘같다’는 어떻게 정의했을까 알아야 한다. 유클리드는 서로 포개서 꼭 맞게 겹쳐지는 것을 ‘같다’고 정의했다. 따라서 삼각형이 꼭 맞게 겹쳐짐을 보이면 된다.

아래 그림에서 변$AB$, 변$AC$가 변$DE$, 변$DF$와 각각 같고 각 $BAC$와 각$EDF$가 서로 같다고 가정하자.

이제 나머지 변$BC$와 변$EF$, 각$ABC$는 각$DEF$와 같고 각$ACB$는 각$DFE$와 같음을 보이면 된다.

먼저 꼭짓점 $A$를 $D$에 포개어 놓고 직선 $AB$를 직선 $DE$에 포개어 놓자.

$\overline{AB}=\overline{DE}$이므로 꼭짓점 $B$는 $E$와 포개어 진다.

$\angle{ BAC}=\angle{EDF}$이므로 $AB$와 $DE$가 포개져 있으면 직선 $AC$와 직선 $DF$도 포개어 진다’.

따라서 점 $C$와 점 $F$도 포개진다. ($\because \overline{ AC }=\overline{DF}$)

앞에서 점 $B$와  점 $E$가 일치하므로 밑변 $BC$와 밑변 $EF$는 같다. (두 점을 잇는 선분은 단 하나다. )

그러므로 삼각형 $ABC$와 삼각형 $DEF$은 빈틈없이 포개어 진다.

그러므로 나머지 각도 서로 같다.

$$\angle {ABC}=\angle {DEF},\;\;\angle {ACB}=\angle {DFE}$$

$\blacksquare$

이렇게 두 삼각형이 같은 것을 합동($\equiv$)이라고 하고 기호로 아래처럼 적는다. 유클리드는 ‘합동’을 정의하지 않고 포개어 꼭 맞게 겹쳐짐을 보였다. 오늘날은 SAS(명제4), SSS(멍제 8), ASA(명제 26) 합동 정리를 공리처럼 쓰고 있다.

$$\triangle ABC\equiv\triangle DEF$$

1권_명제 3 선분 자르기

서로 다른 선분이 있을 때 작은 것과 같은 선분으로 큰 것을 자를 수 있다.

명제 3에서 선분을 옮길 수 있게 되었으므로 선분 $C$ 보다 긴 선분 $AB$를 선분 $C$와 같은 선분만큼 잘라내는 것은 간단하다.

선분 $C$와 같은 선분을 점 $A$를 끝점으로 하여 직선 $AB$ 위에 만든다.

$\blacksquare$

1권_명제 2 선분 옮기기

명제 2 주어진 선분과 같은 선분을 주어진 한 점을 끝점으로 하여 만들 수 있다.

얼핏 생각하면 선분에 컴퍼스를 대고 반지름을 잰 다음 옮겨서 그리면 된다. 하지만 컴퍼스를 들고 옮기는 동안에 반지름이 달라지지 않음을 증명으로 확인해야 한다. 그 과정은 아래와 같다. 생각보다 쉽지는 않다. 이 과정에서 정삼각형을 작도해야 한다. 그래서 명제 1을 명제 2 앞에 놓은 것이다.

점 $A$와 선분 $\overline{BC}$가 주어졌다고 하자.

선분 $\overline{AC}$를 한 변으로 하는 정삼각형을 그려 점 $D$를 찾는다. (명제 1)

반직선 $DC$와 $DA$를 긋는다. (P-2)

점 $C$를 중심으로 반지름이 $\overline{BC}$인 원 $C_1$을 그려서 반직선 $DC$ 위의 점 $E$를 찾는다. (P-3)

점 $D$를 중심으로 반지름이 $\overline{DE}$인 원 $C_2$을 그려서 반직선 $DA$ 위의 점 $F$를 찾는다.

$\overline{DE}=\overline{DF}$이고 $\overline{DC}=\overline{DA}$이므로

$\overline{DE}-\overline{DC}=\overline{DF}-\overline{DA}$이다.  (CN-3)

정리하면

$\overline{CE}=\overline{AF}$

점 $A$를 중심으로 반지름이 $\overline{AF}$인 원 $C_3$을 그린다.

원 $C_3$ 위에 있는 점과 점 $A$를 잇는 선분이 명제가 원하는 선분이다.

$\blacksquare$

 

1권_명제 1 정삼각형 작도하기

명제 1 주어진 선분을 변으로 하는 정삼각형을 작도하라.

주어진 선분 $AB$를 반지름으로 두 점 $A,B$를 중심으로 하는 두 원을 그릴 수 있다.  [p-3]

두 원의 교점을 $C$라고 하자.

두 점 $A$와 $C$, $B$와 $C$를 잇는 선분을 그릴 수 있다.[p-1]

$\overline{AB}=\overline{AC}$이고 $\overline{AB}=\overline{BC}$이다.

공통관념 1에 따라 $\overline{AC}=\overline{BC}$이다.

정삼각형을 작도하였다.

사실 여기에 살짝 부족함은 있다. 두 원이 교차할 때 만나는 점이 반드시 존재한다고 하려면 선이 완비성을 가지고 있다는 공리가 필요하다. 이 부분은 훗날 수학자가 완비성 공리로 보완하였다.

13권

Table of contents

 

Propositions

 

Proposition 1.
If a straight line is cut in extreme and mean ratio, then the square on the greater segment added to the half of the whole is five times the square on the half.
Proposition 2.
If the square on a straight line is five times the square on a segment on it, then, when the double of the said segment is cut in extreme and mean ratio, the greater segment is the remaining part of the original straight line.Lemma for XIII.2.
Proposition 3.
If a straight line is cut in extreme and mean ratio, then the square on the sum of the lesser segment and the half of the greater segment is five times the square on the half of the greater segment.
Proposition 4.
If a straight line is cut in extreme and mean ratio, then the sum of the squares on the whole and on the lesser segment is triple the square on the greater segment.
Proposition 5.
If a straight line is cut in extreme and mean ratio, and a straight line equal to the greater segment is added to it, then the whole straight line has been cut in extreme and mean ratio, and the original straight line is the greater segment.
Proposition 6.
If a rational straight line is cut in extreme and mean ratio, then each of the segments is the irrational straight line called apotome.
Proposition 7.
If three angles of an equilateral pentagon, taken either in order or not in order, are equal, then the pentagon is equiangular.
Proposition 8.
If in an equilateral and equiangular pentagon straight lines subtend two angles are taken in order, then they cut one another in extreme and mean ratio, and their greater segments equal the side of the pentagon.
Proposition 9.
If the side of the hexagon and that of the decagon inscribed in the same circle are added together, then the whole straight line has been cut in extreme and mean ratio, and its greater segment is the side of the hexagon.
Proposition 10.
If an equilateral pentagon is inscribed ina circle, then the square on the side of the pentagon equals the sum of the squares on the sides of the hexagon and the decagon inscribed in the same circle.
Proposition 11.
If an equilateral pentagon is inscribed in a circle which has its diameter rational, then the side of the pentagon is the irrational straight line called minor.
Proposition 12.
If an equilateral triangle is inscribed in a circle, then the square on the side of the triangle is triple the square on the radius of the circle.
Proposition 13.
To construct a pyramid, to comprehend it in a given sphere; and to prove that the square on the diameter of the sphere is one and a half times the square on the side of the pyramid. Lemma for XIII.13.
Proposition 14.
To construct an octahedron and comprehend it in a sphere, as in the preceding case; and to prove that the square on the diameter of the sphere is double the square on the side of the octahedron.
Proposition 15.
To construct a cube and comprehend it in a sphere, like the pyramid; and to prove that the square on the diameter of the sphere is triple the square on the side of the cube.
Proposition 16.
To construct an icosahedron and comprehend it in a sphere, like the aforesaid figures; and to prove that the square on the side of the icosahedron is the irrational straight line called minor. Corollary. The square on the diameter of the sphere is five times the square on the radius of the circle from which the icosahedron has been described, and the diameter of the sphere is composed of the side of the hexagon and two of the sides of the decagon inscribed in the same circle.
Proposition 17.
To construct a dodecahedron and comprehend it in a sphere, like the aforesaid figures; and to prove that the square on the side of the dodecahedron is the irrational straight line called apotome. Corollary. When the side of the cube is cut in extreme and mean ratio, the greater segment is the side of the dodecahedron.
Proposition 18.
To set out the sides of the five figures and compare them with one another.
Remark.
No other figure, besides the said five figures, can be constructed by equilateral and equiangular figures equal to one another.Lemma. The angle of the equilateral and equiangular pentagon is a right angle and a fifth.

12권

Table of contents

 

Propositions

 

Proposition 1.
Similar polygons inscribed in circles are to one another as the squares on their diameters.
Proposition 2.
Circles are to one another as the squares on their diameters.Lemma for XII.2.
Proposition 3.
Any pyramid with a triangular base is divided into two pyramids equal and similar to one another, similar to the whole, and having triangular bases, and into two equal prisms, and the two prisms are greater than half of the whole pyramid.
Proposition 4.
If there are two pyramids of the same height with triangular bases, and each of them is divided into two pyramids equal and similar to one another and similar to the whole, and into two equal prisms, then the base of the one pyramid is to the base of the other pyramid as all the prisms in the one pyramid are to all the prisms, being equal in multitude, in the other pyramid.Lemma for XII.4.
Proposition 5.
Pyramids of the same height with triangular bases are to one another as their bases.
Proposition 6.
Pyramids of the same height with polygonal bases are to one another as their bases.
Proposition 7.
Any prism with a triangular base is divided into three pyramids equal to one another with triangular bases.Corollary. Any pyramid is a third part of the prism with the same base and equal height.
Proposition 8.
Similar pyramids with triangular bases are in triplicate ratio of their corresponding sides.Corollary. Similar pyramids with polygonal bases are also to one another in triplicate ratio of their corresponding sides.
Proposition 9.
In equal pyramids with triangular bases the bases are reciprocally proportional to the heights; and those pyramids are equal in which the bases are reciprocally proportional to the heights.
Proposition 10.
Any cone is a third part of the cylinder with the same base and equal height.
Proposition 11.
Cones and cylinders of the same height are to one another as their bases.
Proposition 12.
Similar cones and cylinders are to one another in triplicate ratio of the diameters of their bases.
Proposition 13.
If a cylinder is cut by a plane parallel to its opposite planes, then the cylinder is to the cylinder as the axis is to the axis.
Proposition 14.
Cones and cylinders on equal bases are to one another as their heights.
Proposition 15.
In equal cones and cylinders the bases are reciprocally proportional to the heights; and those cones and cylinders in which the bases are reciprocally proportional to the heights are equal.
Proposition 16.
Given two circles about the same center, to inscribe in the greater circle an equilateral polygon with an even number of sides which does not touch the lesser circle.
Proposition 17.
Given two spheres about the same center, to inscribe in the greater sphere a polyhedral solid which does not touch the lesser sphere at its surface. Corollary to XII.17.
Proposition 18.
Spheres are to one another in triplicate ratio of their respective diameters.

11권

Table of contents


Definitions

 

Definition 1.
A solid is that which has length, breadth, and depth.
Definition 2.
A face of a solid is a surface.
Definition 3.
A straight line is at right angles to a plane when it makes right angles with all the straight lines which meet it and are in the plane.
Definition 4.
A plane is at right angles to a plane when the straight lines drawn in one of the planes at right angles to the intersection of the planes are at right angles to the remaining plane.
Definition 5.
The inclination of a straight line to a plane is, assuming a perpendicular drawn from the end of the straight line which is elevated above the plane to the plane, and a straight line joined from the point thus arising to the end of the straight line which is in the plane, the angle contained by the straight line so drawn and the straight line standing up.
Definition 6.
The inclination of a plane to a plane is the acute angle contained by the straight lines drawn at right angles to the intersection at the same point, one in each of the planes.
Definition 7.
A plane is said to be similarly inclined to a plane as another is to another when the said angles of the inclinations equal one another.
Definition 8.
Parallel planes are those which do not meet.
Definition 9.
Similar solid figures are those contained by similar planes equal in multitude.
Definition 10.
Equal and similar solid figures are those contained by similar planes equal in multitude and magnitude.
Definition 11.
A solid angle is the inclination constituted by more than two lines which meet one another and are not in the same surface, towards all the lines, that is, a solid angle is that which is contained by more than two plane angles which are not in the same plane and are constructed to one point.
Definition 12.
A pyramid is a solid figure contained by planes which is constructed from one plane to one point.
Definition 13.
A prism is a solid figure contained by planes two of which, namely those which are opposite, are equal, similar, and parallel, while the rest are parallelograms.
Definition 14.
When a semicircle with fixed diameter is carried round and restored again to the same position from which it began to be moved, the figure so comprehended is a sphere.
Definition 15.
The axis of the sphere is the straight line which remains fixed and about which the semicircle is turned.
Definition 16.
The center of the sphere is the same as that of the semicircle.
Definition 17.
A diameter of the sphere is any straight line drawn through the center and terminated in both directions by the surface of the sphere.
Definition 18.
When a right triangle with one side of those about the right angle remains fixed is carried round and restored again to the same position from which it began to be moved, the figure so comprehended is a cone. And, if the straight line which remains fixed equals the remaining side about the right angle which is carried round, the cone will be right-angled; if less, obtuse-angled; and if greater, acute-angled.
Definition 19.
The axis of the cone is the straight line which remains fixed and about which the triangle is turned.
Definition 20.
And the base is the circle described by the straight in which is carried round.
Definition 21.
When a rectangular parallelogram with one side of those about the right angle remains fixed is carried round and restored again to the same position from which it began to be moved, the figure so comprehended is a cylinder.
Definition 22.
The axis of the cylinder is the straight line which remains fixed and about which the parallelogram is turned.
Definition 23.
And the bases are the circles described by the two sides opposite to one another which are carried round.
Definition 24.
Similar cones and cylinders are those in which the axes and the diameters of the bases are proportional.
Definition 25.
A cube is a solid figure contained by six equal squares.
Definition 26.
An octahedron is a solid figure contained by eight equal and equilateral triangles.
Definition 27.
An icosahedron is a solid figure contained by twenty equal and equilateral triangles.
Definition 28.
A dodecahedron is a solid figure contained by twelve equal, equilateral and equiangular pentagons.

 

Propositions

 

Proposition 1.
A part of a straight line cannot be in the plane of reference and a part in plane more elevated.
Proposition 2.
If two straight lines cut one another, then they lie in one plane; and every triangle lies in one plane.
Proposition 3.
If two planes cut one another, then their intersection is a straight line.
Proposition 4.
If a straight line is set up at right angles to two straight lines which cut one another at their common point of section, then it is also at right angles to the plane passing through them.
Proposition 5.
If a straight line is set up at right angles to three straight lines which meet one another at their common point of section, then the three straight lines lie in one plane.
Proposition 6.
If two straight lines are at right angles to the same plane, then the straight lines are parallel.
Proposition 7.
If two straight lines are parallel and points are taken at random on each of them, then the straight line joining the points is in the same plane with the parallel straight lines.
Proposition 8.
If two straight lines are parallel, and one of them is at right angles to any plane, then the remaining one is also at right angles to the same plane.
Proposition 9
Straight lines which are parallel to the same straight line but do not lie in the same plane with it are also parallel to each other.
Proposition 10.
If two straight lines meeting one another are parallel to two straight lines meeting one another not in the same plane, then they contain equal angles.
Proposition 11.
To draw a straight line perpendicular to a given plane from a given elevated point.
Proposition 12.
To set up a straight line at right angles to a give plane from a given point in it.
Proposition 13.
From the same point two straight lines cannot be set up at right angles to the same plane on the same side.
Proposition 14.
Planes to which the same straight line is at right angles are parallel.
Proposition 15.
If two straight lines meeting one another are parallel to two straight lines meeting one another not in the same plane, then the planes through them are parallel.
Proposition 16.
If two parallel planes are cut by any plane, then their intersections are parallel.
Proposition 17.
If two straight lines are cut by parallel planes, then they are cut in the same ratios.
Proposition 18.
If a straight line is at right angles to any plane, then all the planes through it are also at right angles to the same plane.
Proposition 19.
If two planes which cut one another are at right angles to any plane, then their intersection is also at right angles to the same plane.
Proposition 20.
If a solid angle is contained by three plane angles, then the sum of any two is greater than the remaining one.
Proposition 21.
Any solid angle is contained by plane angles whose sum is less than four right angles.
Proposition 22
If there are three plane angles such that the sum of any two is greater than the remaining one, and they are contained by equal straight lines, then it is possible to construct a triangle out of the straight lines joining the ends of the equal straight lines.
Proposition 23.
To construct a solid angles out of three plane angles such that the sum of any two is greater than the remaining one: thus the sum of the three angles must be less than four right angles. Lemma for XI.23.
Proposition 24.
If a solid is contained by parallel planes, then the opposite planes in it are equal and parallelogrammic.
Proposition 25.
If a parallelepipedal solid is cut by a plane parallel to the opposite planes, then the base is to the base as the solid is to the solid.
Proposition 26.
To construct a solid angle equal to a given solid angle on a given straight line at a given point on it.
Proposition 27.
To describe a parallelepipedal solid similar and similarly situated to a given parallelepipedal solid on a given straight line.
Proposition 28.
If a parallelepipedal solid is cut by a plane through the diagonals of the opposite planes, then the solid is bisected by the plane.
Proposition 29.
Parallelepipedal solids which are on the same base and of the same height, and in which the ends of their edges which stand up are on the same straight lines, equal one another.
Proposition 30.
Parallelepipedal solids which are on the same base and of the same height, and in which the ends of their edges which stand up are not on the same straight lines, equal one another.
Proposition 31.
Parallelepipedal solids which are on equal bases and of the same height equal one another.
Proposition 32.
Parallelepipedal solids which are of the same height are to one another as their bases.
Proposition 33.
Similar parallelepipedal solids are to one another in the triplicate ratio of their corresponding sides.Corollary. If four straight lines are continuously proportional, then the first is to the fourth as a parallelepipedal solid on the first is to the similar and similarly situated parallelepipedal solid on the second, in as much as the first has to the fourth the ratio triplicate of that which it has to the second.
Proposition 34.
In equal parallelepipedal solids the bases are reciprocally proportional to the heights; and those parallelepipedal solids in which the bases are reciprocally proportional to the heights are equal.
Proposition 35.
If there are two equal plane angles, and on their vertices there are set up elevated straight lines containing equal angles with the original straight lines respectively, if on the elevated straight lines points are taken at random and perpendiculars are drawn from them to the planes in which the original angles are, and if from the points so arising in the planes straight lines are joined to the vertices of the original angles, then they contain with the elevated straight lines equal angles.
Proposition 36.
If three straight lines are proportional, then the parallelepipedal solid formed out of the three equals the parallelepipedal solid on the mean which is equilateral, but equiangular with the aforesaid solid.
Proposition 37.
If four straight lines are proportional, then parallelepipedal solids on them which are similar and similarly described are also proportional; and, if the parallelepipedal solids on them which are similar and similarly described are proportional, then the straight lines themselves are also proportional.
Proposition 38.
If the sides of the opposite planes of a cube are bisected, and the planes are carried through the points of section, then the intersection of the planes and the diameter of the cube bisect one another.
Proposition 39.
If there are two prisms of equal height, and one has a parallelogram as base and the other a triangle, and if the parallelogram is double the triangle, then the prisms are equal.

10권

Table of contents


 

Definitions I

 

Definition 1.
Those magnitudes are said to be commensurable which are measured by the same measure, and those incommensurable which cannot have any common measure.
Definition 2.
Straight lines are commensurable in square when the squares on them are measured by the same area, and incommensurable in square when the squares on them cannot possibly have any area as a common measure.
Definition 3.
With these hypotheses, it is proved that there exist straight lines infinite in multitude which are commensurable and incommensurable respectively, some in length only, and others in square also, with an assigned straight line. Let then the assigned straight line be called rational, and those straight lines which are commensurable with it, whether in length and in square, or in square only, rational, but those that are incommensurable with it irrational.
Definition 4.
And the let the square on the assigned straight line be called rational, and those areas which are commensurable with it rational, but those which are incommensurable with it irrational, and the straight lines which produce them irrational, that is, in case the areas are squares, the sides themselves, but in case they are any other rectilineal figures, the straight lines on which are described squares equal to them.

 

Propositions 1-47

 

Proposition 1.
Two unequal magnitudes being set out, if from the greater there is subtracted a magnitude greater than its half, and from that which is left a magnitude greater than its half, and if this process is repeated continually, then there will be left some magnitude less than the lesser magnitude set out. And the theorem can similarly be proven even if the parts subtracted are halves.
Proposition 2.
If, when the less of two unequal magnitudes is continually subtracted in turn from the greater that which is left never measures the one before it, then the two magnitudes are incommensurable.
Proposition 3.
To find the greatest common measure of two given commensurable magnitudes. Corollary. If a magnitude measures two magnitudes, then it also measures their greatest common measure.
Proposition 4.
To find the greatest common measure of three given commensurable magnitudes. Corollary. If a magnitude measures three magnitudes, then it also measures their greatest common measure. The greatest common measure can be found similarly for more magnitudes, and the corollary extended.
Proposition 5.
Commensurable magnitudes have to one another the ratio which a number has to a number.
Proposition 6.
If two magnitudes have to one another the ratio which a number has to a number, then the magnitudes are commensurable.Corollary.
Proposition 7.
Incommensurable magnitudes do not have to one another the ratio which a number has to a number.
Proposition 8.
If two magnitudes do not have to one another the ratio which a number has to a number, then the magnitudes are incommensurable.
Proposition 9.
The squares on straight lines commensurable in length have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number; and squares which have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number also have their sides commensurable in length. But the squares on straight lines incommensurable in length do not have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number; and squares which do not have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number also do not have their sides commensurable in length either.Corollary. Straight lines commensurable in length are always commensurable in square also, but those commensurable in square are not always also commensurable in length.

Lemma. Similar plane numbers have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number, and if two numbers have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number, then they are similar plane numbers.

Corollary 2. Numbers which are not similar plane numbers, that is, those which do not have their sides proportional, do not have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number

Proposition 10.
To find two straight lines incommensurable, the one in length only, and the other in square also, with an assigned straight line.
Proposition 11.
If four magnitudes are proportional, and the first is commensurable with the second, then the third also is commensurable with the fourth; but, if the first is incommensurable with the second, then the third also is incommensurable with the fourth.
Proposition 12.
Magnitudes commensurable with the same magnitude are also commensurable with one another.
Proposition 13.
If two magnitudes are commensurable, and one of them is incommensurable with any magnitude, then the remaining one is also incommensurable with the same.
Proposition 14.
Lemma. Given two unequal straight lines, to find by what square the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less. And, given two straight lines, to find the straight line the square on which equals the sum of the squares on them. Proposition 14. If four straight lines are proportional, and the square on the first is greater than the square on the second by the square on a straight line commensurable with the first, then the square on the third is also greater than the square on the fourth by the square on a third line commensurable with the third. And, if the square on the first is greater than the square on the second by the square on a straight line incommensurable with the first, then the square on the third is also greater than the square on the fourth by the square on a third line incommensurable with the third.
Proposition 15.
If two commensurable magnitudes are added together, then the whole is also commensurable with each of them; and, if the whole is commensurable with one of them, then the original magnitudes are also commensurable.
Proposition 16.
If two incommensurable magnitudes are added together, the sum is also incommensurable with each of them; but, if the sum is incommensurable with one of them, then the original magnitudes are also incommensurable.
Proposition 17.
Lemma. If to any straight line there is applied a parallelogram but falling short by a square, then the applied parallelogram equals the rectangle contained by the segments of the straight line resulting from the application.Proposition 17. If there are two unequal straight lines, and to the greater there is applied a parallelogram equal to the fourth part of the square on the less but falling short by a square, and if it divides it into parts commensurable in length, then the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less by the square on a straight line commensurable with the greater. And if the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less by the square on a straight line commensurable with the greater, and if there is applied to the greater a parallelogram equal to the fourth part of the square on the less falling short by a square, then it divides it into parts commensurable in length.
Proposition 18.
If there are two unequal straight lines, and to the greater there is applied a parallelogram equal to the fourth part of the square on the less but falling short by a square, and if it divides it into incommensurable parts, then the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less by the square on a straight line incommensurable with the greater. And if the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less by the square on a straight line incommensurable with the greater, and if there is applied to the greater a parallelogram equal to the fourth part of the square on the less but falling short by a square, then it divides it into incommensurable parts.
Proposition 19.
Lemma.Proposition 19. The rectangle contained by rational straight lines commensurable in length is rational.
Proposition 20.
If a rational area is applied to a rational straight line, then it produces as breadth a straight line rational and commensurable in length with the straight line to which it is applied.
Proposition 21.
The rectangle contained by rational straight lines commensurable in square only is irrational, and the side of the square equal to it is irrational. Let the latter be called medial.
Proposition 22.
Lemma. If there are two straight lines, then the first is to the second as the square on the first is to the rectangle contained by the two straight lines.Proposition 22. The square on a medial straight line, if applied to a rational straight line, produces as breadth a straight line rational and incommensurable in length with that to which it is applied.
Proposition 23.
A straight line commensurable with a medial straight line is medial.Corollary. An area commensurable with a medial area is medial.
Proposition 24.
The rectangle contained by medial straight lines commensurable in length is medial.
Proposition 25.
The rectangle contained by medial straight lines commensurable in square only is either rational or medial.
Proposition 26.
A medial area does not exceed a medial area by a rational area.
Proposition 27.
To find medial straight lines commensurable in square only which contain a rational rectangle.
Proposition 28.
To find medial straight lines commensurable in square only which contain a medial rectangle.
Proposition 29.
Lemma 1. To find two square numbers such that their sum is also square.Lemma 2. To find two square numbers such that their sum is not square.

Proposition 29. To find two rational straight lines commensurable in square only such that the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less by the square on a straight line commensurable in length with the greater.

Proposition 30.
To find two rational straight lines commensurable in square only such that the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less by the square on a straight line incommensurable in length with the greater.
Proposition 31.
To find two medial straight lines commensurable in square only, containing a rational rectangle, such that the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less by the square on a straight line commensurable in length with the greater.
Proposition 32.
To find two medial straight lines commensurable in square only, containing a medial rectangle, such that the square on the greater is greater than the square on the less by the square on a straight line commensurable with the greater.
Proposition 33.
Lemma.Proposition 33. To find two straight lines incommensurable in square which make the sum of the squares on them rational but the rectangle contained by them medial.
Proposition 34.
To find two straight lines incommensurable in square which make the sum of the squares on them medial but the rectangle contained by them rational.
Proposition 35.
To find two straight lines incommensurable in square which make the sum of the squares on them medial and the rectangle contained by them medial and moreover incommensurable with the sum of the squares on them.
Proposition 36.
If two rational straight lines commensurable in square only are added together, then the whole is irrational; let it be called binomial.
Proposition 37.
If two medial straight lines commensurable in square only and containing a rational rectangle are added together, the whole is irrational; let it be called the first bimedial straight line.
Proposition 38.
If two medial straight lines commensurable in square only and containing a medial rectangle are added together, then the whole is irrational; let it be called the second bimedial straight line.
Proposition 39.
If two straight lines incommensurable in square which make the sum of the squares on them rational but the rectangle contained by them medial are added together, then the whole straight line is irrational; let it be called major.
Proposition 40.
If two straight lines incommensurable in square which make the sum of the squares on them medial but the rectangle contained by them rational are added together, then the whole straight line is irrational; let it be called the side of a rational plus a medial area.
Proposition 41.
If two straight lines incommensurable in square which make the sum of the squares on them medial and the rectangle contained by them medial and also incommensurable with the sum of the squares on them are added together, then the whole straight line is irrational; let it be called the side of the sum of two medial areas.Lemma.
Proposition 42.
A binomial straight line is divided into its terms at one point only.
Proposition 43.
A first bimedial straight line is divided at one and the same point only.
Proposition 44.
A second bimedial straight line is divided at one point only.
Proposition 45.
A major straight line is divided at one point only.
Proposition 46.
The side of a rational plus a medial area is divided at one point only.
Proposition 47.
The side of the sum of two medial areas is divided at one point only.

 

Definitions II

 

Definition 1.
Given a rational straight line and a binomial, divided into its terms, such that the square on the greater term is greater than the square on the lesser by the square on a straight line commensurable in length with the greater, then, if the greater term is commensurable in length with the rational straight line set out, let the whole be called a first binomial straight line;
Definition 2.
But if the lesser term is commensurable in length with the rational straight line set out, let the whole be called a second binomial;
Definition 3.
And if neither of the terms is commensurable in length with the rational straight line set out, let the whole be called a third binomial.
Definition 4.
Again, if the square on the greater term is greater than the square on the lesser by the square on a straight line incommensurable in length with the greater, then, if the greater term is commensurable in length with the rational straight line set out, let the whole be called a fourth binomial;
Definition 5.
If the lesser, a fifth binomial;
Definition 6.
And, if neither, a sixth binomial.

 

Propositions 48-84

 

Proposition 48.
To find the first binomial line.
Proposition 49.
To find the second binomial line.
Proposition 50.
To find the third binomial line.
Proposition 51.
To find the fourth binomial line.
Proposition 52.
To find the fifth binomial line.
Proposition 53.
To find the sixth binomial line.
Proposition 54.
Lemma.Proposition 54. If an area is contained by a rational straight line and the first binomial, then the side of the area is the irrational straight line which is called binomial.
Proposition 55.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and the second binomial, then the side of the area is the irrational straight line which is called a first bimedial.
Proposition 56.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and the third binomial, then the side of the area is the irrational straight line called a second bimedial.
Proposition 57.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and the fourth binomial, then the side of the area is the irrational straight line called major.
Proposition 58.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and the fifth binomial, then the side of the area is the irrational straight line called the side of a rational plus a medial area.
Proposition 59.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and the sixth binomial, then the side of the area is the irrational straight line called the side of the sum of two medial areas.
Proposition 60.
Lemma. If a straight line is cut into unequal parts, then the sum of the squares on the unequal parts is greater than twice the rectangle contained by the unequal parts.Proposition 60. The square on the binomial straight line applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth the first binomial.
Proposition 61.
The square on the first bimedial straight line applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth the second binomial.
Proposition 62.
The square on the second bimedial straight line applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth the third binomial.
Proposition 63.
The square on the major straight line applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth the fourth binomial.
Proposition 64.
The square on the side of a rational plus a medial area applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth the fifth binomial.
Proposition 65.
The square on the side of the sum of two medial areas applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth the sixth binomial.
Proposition 66.
A straight line commensurable with a binomial straight line is itself also binomial and the same in order.
Proposition 67.
A straight line commensurable with a bimedial straight line is itself also bimedial and the same in order.
Proposition 68.
A straight line commensurable with a major straight line is itself also major.
Proposition 69.
A straight line commensurable with the side of a rational plus a medial area is itself also the side of a rational plus a medial area.
Proposition 70.
A straight line commensurable with the side of the sum of two medial areas is the side of the sum of two medial areas.
Proposition 71.
If a rational and a medial are added together, then four irrational straight lines arise, namely a binomial or a first bimedial or a major or a side of a rational plus a medial area.
Proposition 72.
If two medial areas incommensurable with one another are added together, then the remaining two irrational straight lines arise, namely either a second bimedial or a side of the sum of two medial areas.Proposition. The binomial straight line and the irrational straight lines after it are neither the same with the medial nor with one another.
Proposition 73.
If from a rational straight line there is subtracted a rational straight line commensurable with the whole in square only, then the remainder is irrational; let it be called an apotome.
Proposition 74.
If from a medial straight line there is subtracted a medial straight line which is commensurable with the whole in square only, and which contains with the whole a rational rectangle, then the remainder is irrational; let it be called first apotome of a medial straight line.
Proposition 75.
If from a medial straight line there is subtracted a medial straight line which is commensurable with the whole in square only, and which contains with the whole a medial rectangle, then the remainder is irrational; let it be called second apotome of a medial straight line.
Proposition 76.
If from a straight line there is subtracted a straight line which is incommensurable in square with the whole and which with the whole makes the sum of the squares on them added together rational, but the rectangle contained by them medial, then the remainder is irrational; let it be called minor.
Proposition 77.
If from a straight line there is subtracted a straight line which is incommensurable in square with the whole, and which with the whole makes the sum of the squares on them medial but twice the rectangle contained by them rational, then the remainder is irrational; let it be called that which produces with a rational area a medial whole.
Proposition 78.
If from a straight line there is subtracted a straight line which is incommensurable in square with the whole and which with the whole makes the sum of the squares on them medial, twice the rectangle contained by them medial, and further the squares on them incommensurable with twice the rectangle contained by them, then the remainder is irrational; let it be called that which produces with a medial area a medial whole.
Proposition 79.
To an apotome only one rational straight line can be annexed which is commensurable with the whole in square only.
Proposition 80.
To a first apotome of a medial straight line only one medial straight line can be annexed which is commensurable with the whole in square only and which contains with the whole a rational rectangle.
Proposition 81.
To a second apotome of a medial straight line only one medial straight line can be annexed which is commensurable with the whole in square only and which contains with the whole a medial rectangle.
Proposition 82.
To a minor straight line only one straight line can be annexed which is incommensurable in square with the whole and which makes, with the whole, the sum of squares on them rational but twice the rectangle contained by them medial.
Proposition 83.
To a straight line which produces with a rational area a medial whole only one straight line can be annexed which is incommensurable in square with the whole straight line and which with the whole straight line makes the sum of squares on them medial but twice the rectangle contained by them rational.
Proposition 84.
To a straight line which produces with a medial area a medial whole only one straight line can be annexed which is incommensurable in square with the whole straight line and which with the whole straight line makes the sum of squares on them medial and twice the rectangle contained by them both medial and also incommensurable with the sum of the squares on them.

 

Definitions III

 

Definition 1.
Given a rational straight line and an apotome, if the square on the whole is greater than the square on the annex by the square on a straight line commensurable in length with the whole, and the whole is commensurable in length with the rational line set out, let the apotome be called a first apotome.
Definition 2.
But if the annex is commensurable with the rational straight line set out, and the square on the whole is greater than that on the annex by the square on a straight line commensurable with the whole, let the apotome be called a second apotome.
Definition 3.
But if neither is commensurable in length with the rational straight line set out, and the square on the whole is greater than the square on the annex by the square on a straight line commensurable with the whole, let the apotome be called a third apotome.
Definition 4.
Again, if the square on the whole is greater than the square on the annex by the square on a straight line incommensurable with the whole, then, if the whole is commensurable in length with the rational straight line set out, let the apotome be called a fourth apotome;
Definition 5.
If the annex be so commensurable, a fifth;
Definition 6.
And, if neither, a sixth.

 

Propositions 85-115

 

Proposition 85.
To find the first apotome.
Proposition 86.
To find the second apotome.
Proposition 87.
To find the third apotome.
Proposition 88.
To find the fourth apotome.
Proposition 89.
To find the fifth apotome.
Proposition 90.
To find the sixth apotome.
Proposition 91.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and a first apotome, then the side of the area is an apotome.
Proposition 92.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and a second apotome, then the side of the area is a first apotome of a medial straight line.
Proposition 93.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and a third apotome, then the side of the area is a second apotome of a medial straight line.
Proposition 94.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and a fourth apotome, then the side of the area is minor.
Proposition 95.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and a fifth apotome, then the side of the area is a straight line which produces with a rational area a medial whole.
Proposition 96.
If an area is contained by a rational straight line and a sixth apotome, then the side of the area is a straight line which produces with a medial area a medial whole.
Proposition 97.
The square on an apotome of a medial straight line applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth a first apotome.
Proposition 98.
The square on a first apotome of a medial straight line applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth a second apotome.
Proposition 99.
The square on a second apotome of a medial straight line applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth a third apotome.
Proposition 100.
The square on a minor straight line applied to a rational straight line produces as breadth a fourth apotome.
Proposition 101.
The square on the straight line which produces with a rational area a medial whole, if applied to a rational straight line, produces as breadth a fifth apotome.
Proposition 102.
The square on the straight line which produces with a medial area a medial whole, if applied to a rational straight line, produces as breadth a sixth apotome.
Proposition 103.
A straight line commensurable in length with an apotome is an apotome and the same in order.
Proposition 104.
A straight line commensurable with an apotome of a medial straight line is an apotome of a medial straight line and the same in order.
Proposition 105.
A straight line commensurable with a minor straight line is minor.
Proposition 106.
A straight line commensurable with that which produces with a rational area a medial whole is a straight line which produces with a rational area a medial whole.
Proposition 107.
A straight line commensurable with that which produces a medial area and a medial whole is itself also a straight line which produces with a medial area a medial whole.
Proposition 108.
If from a rational area a medial area is subtracted, the side of the remaining area becomes one of two irrational straight lines, either an apotome or a minor straight line.
Proposition 109.
If from a medial area a rational area is subtracted, then there arise two other irrational straight lines, either a first apotome of a medial straight line or a straight line which produces with a rational area a medial whole.
Proposition 110.
If from a medial area there is subtracted a medial area incommensurable with the whole, then the two remaining irrational straight lines arise, either a second apotome of a medial straight line or a straight line which produce with a medial area a medial whole.
Proposition 111.
The apotome is not the same with the binomial straight line.Proposition. The apotome and the irrational straight lines following it are neither the same with the medial straight line nor with one another. There are, in order, thirteen irrational straight lines in all:

    • Medial
    • Binomial
    • First bimedial
    • Second bimedial
    • Major
    • Side of a rational plus a medial area
    • Side of the sum of two medial areas
    • Apotome
    • First apotome of a medial straight line
    • Second apotome of a medial straight line
    • Minor
    • Producing with a rational area a medial whole
    Producing with a medial area a medial whole
Proposition 112.
The square on a rational straight line applied to the binomial straight line produces as breadth an apotome the terms of which are commensurable with the terms of the binomial straight line and moreover in the same ratio; and further the apotome so arising has the same order as the binomial straight line.
Proposition 113.
The square on a rational straight line, if applied to an apotome, produces as breadth the binomial straight line the terms of which are commensurable with the terms of the apotome and in the same ratio; and further the binomial so arising has the same order as the apotome.
Proposition 114.
If an area is contained by an apotome and the binomial straight line the terms of which are commensurable with the terms of the apotome and in the same ratio, then the side of the area is rational.Corollary. It is possible for a rational area to be contained by irrational straight lines.
Proposition 115.
From a medial straight line there arise irrational straight lines infinite in number, and none of them is the same as any preceding.

9권

Table of contents

 

Propositions

 

Proposition 1.
If two similar plane numbers multiplied by one another make some number, then the product is square.
Proposition 2.
If two numbers multiplied by one another make a square number, then they are similar plane numbers.
Proposition 3.
If a cubic number multiplied by itself makes some number, then the product is a cube.
Proposition 4.
If a cubic number multiplied by a cubic number makes some number, then the product is a cube.
Proposition 5.
If a cubic number multiplied by any number makes a cubic number, then the multiplied number is also cubic.
Proposition 6.
If a number multiplied by itself makes a cubic number, then it itself is also cubic.
Proposition 7.
If a composite number multiplied by any number makes some number, then the product is solid.
Proposition 8.
If as many numbers as we please beginning from a unit are in continued proportion, then the third from the unit is square as are also those which successively leave out one, the fourth is cubic as are also all those which leave out two, and the seventh is at once cubic and square are also those which leave out five.
Proposition 9.
If as many numbers as we please beginning from a unit are in continued proportion, and the number after the unit is square, then all the rest are also square; and if the number after the unit is cubic, then all the rest are also cubic.
Proposition 10.
If as many numbers as we please beginning from a unit are in continued proportion, and the number after the unit is not square, then neither is any other square except the third from the unit and all those which leave out one; and, if the number after the unit is not cubic, then neither is any other cubic except the fourth from the unit and all those which leave out two.
Proposition 11.
If as many numbers as we please beginning from a unit are in continued proportion, then the less measures the greater according to some one of the numbers which appear among the proportional numbers.Corollary. Whatever place the measuring number has, reckoned from the unit, the same place also has the number according to which it measures, reckoned from the number measured, in the direction of the number before it.
Proposition 12.
If as many numbers as we please beginning from a unit are in continued proportion, then by whatever prime numbers the last is measured, the next to the unit is also measured by the same.
Proposition 13.
If as many numbers as we please beginning from a unit are in continued proportion, and the number after the unit is prime, then the greatest is not measured by any except those which have a place among the proportional numbers.
Proposition 14.
If a number is the least that is measured by prime numbers, then it is not measured by any other prime number except those originally measuring it.
Proposition 15.
If three numbers in continued proportion are the least of those which have the same ratio with them, then the sum of any two is relatively prime to the remaining number.
Proposition 16.
If two numbers are relatively prime, then the second is not to any other number as the first is to the second.
Proposition 17.
If there are as many numbers as we please in continued proportion, and the extremes of them are relatively prime, then the last is not to any other number as the first is to the second.
Proposition 18.
Given two numbers, to investigate whether it is possible to find a third proportional to them.
Proposition 19.
Given three numbers, to investigate when it is possible to find a fourth proportional to them.
Proposition 20.
Prime numbers are more than any assigned multitude of prime numbers.
Proposition 21.
If as many even numbers as we please are added together, then the sum is even.
Proposition 22.
If as many odd numbers as we please are added together, and their multitude is even, then the sum is even.
Proposition 23.
If as many odd numbers as we please are added together, and their multitude is odd, then the sum is also odd.
Proposition 24.
If an even number is subtracted from an even number, then the remainder is even.
Proposition 25.
If an odd number is subtracted from an even number, then the remainder is odd.
Proposition 26.
If an odd number is subtracted from an odd number, then the remainder is even.
Proposition 27.
If an even number is subtracted from an odd number, then the remainder is odd.
Proposition 28.
If an odd number is multiplied by an even number, then the product is even.
Proposition 29.
If an odd number is multiplied by an odd number, then the product is odd.
Proposition 30.
If an odd number measures an even number, then it also measures half of it.
Proposition 31.
If an odd number is relatively prime to any number, then it is also relatively prime to double it.
Proposition 32.
Each of the numbers which are continually doubled beginning from a dyad is even-times even only.
Proposition 33.
If a number has its half odd, then it is even-times odd only.
Proposition 34.
If an [even] number neither is one of those which is continually doubled from a dyad, nor has its half odd, then it is both even-times even and even-times odd.
Proposition 35.
If as many numbers as we please are in continued proportion, and there is subtracted from the second and the last numbers equal to the first, then the excess of the second is to the first as the excess of the last is to the sum of all those before it.
Proposition 36.
If as many numbers as we please beginning from a unit are set out continuously in double proportion until the sum of all becomes prime, and if the sum multiplied into the last makes some number, then the product is perfect.

8권

Table of contents

 

Propositions

 

Proposition 1.
If there are as many numbers as we please in continued proportion, and the extremes of them are relatively prime, then the numbers are the least of those which have the same ratio with them.
Proposition 2.
To find as many numbers as are prescribed in continued proportion, and the least that are in a given ratio. Corollary. If three numbers in continued proportion are the least of those which have the same ratio with them, then the extremes are squares, and, if four numbers, cubes.
Proposition 3.
If as many numbers as we please in continued proportion are the least of those which have the same ratio with them, then the extremes of them are relatively prime.
Proposition 4.
Given as many ratios as we please in least numbers, to find numbers in continued proportion which are the least in the given ratios.
Proposition 5.
Plane numbers have to one another the ratio compounded of the ratios of their sides.
Proposition 6.
If there are as many numbers as we please in continued proportion, and the first does not measure the second, then neither does any other measure any other.
Proposition 7.
If there are as many numbers as we please in continued proportion, and the first measures the last, then it also measures the second.
Proposition 8.
If between two numbers there fall numbers in continued proportion with them, then, however many numbers fall between them in continued proportion, so many also fall in continued proportion between the numbers which have the same ratios with the original numbers.
Proposition 9.
If two numbers are relatively prime, and numbers fall between them in continued proportion, then, however many numbers fall between them in continued proportion, so many also fall between each of them and a unit in continued proportion.
Proposition 10.
If numbers fall between two numbers and a unit in continued proportion, then however many numbers fall between each of them and a unit in continued proportion, so many also fall between the numbers themselves in continued proportion.
Proposition 11.
Between two square numbers there is one mean proportional number, and the square has to the square the duplicate ratio of that which the side has to the side.
Proposition 12.
Between two cubic numbers there are two mean proportional numbers, and the cube has to the cube the triplicate ratio of that which the side has to the side.
Proposition 13.
If there are as many numbers as we please in continued proportion, and each multiplied by itself makes some number, then the products are proportional; and, if the original numbers multiplied by the products make certain numbers, then the latter are also proportional.
Proposition 14.
If a square measures a square, then the side also measures the side; and, if the side measures the side, then the square also measures the square.
Proposition 15.
If a cubic number measures a cubic number, then the side also measures the side; and, if the side measures the side, then the cube also measures the cube.
Proposition 16.
If a square does not measure a square, then neither does the side measure the side; and, if the side does not measure the side, then neither does the square measure the square.
Proposition 17.
If a cubic number does not measure a cubic number, then neither does the side measure the side; and, if the side does not measure the side, then neither does the cube measure the cube.
Proposition 18.
Between two similar plane numbers there is one mean proportional number, and the plane number has to the plane number the ratio duplicate of that which the corresponding side has to the corresponding side.
Proposition 19.
Between two similar solid numbers there fall two mean proportional numbers, and the solid number has to the solid number the ratio triplicate of that which the corresponding side has to the corresponding side.
Proposition 20.
If one mean proportional number falls between two numbers, then the numbers are similar plane numbers.
Proposition 21.
If two mean proportional numbers fall between two numbers, then the numbers are similar solid numbers.
Proposition 22.
If three numbers are in continued proportion, and the first is square, then the third is also square.
Proposition 23.
If four numbers are in continued proportion, and the first is a cube, then the fourth is also a cube.
Proposition 24.
If two numbers have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number, and the first is square, then the second is also a square.
Proposition 25.
If two numbers have to one another the ratio which a cubic number has to a cubic number, and the first is a cube, then the second is also a cube.
Proposition 26.
Similar plane numbers have to one another the ratio which a square number has to a square number.
Proposition 27.
Similar solid numbers have to one another the ratio which a cubic number has to a cubic number.